Early Muslims in the Kingdom of Rakhaing (Arakan)
The territory, controlled by the Mrauk-U dynasty (1433-1785), the
last dynasty in Rakhaing (Arakanese) history, stretched from Chittagong
in the North to Thanlyin (Syriam) in the South until it lost the whole
of Chittagong down to the River Naaf (Nat River) to Mughal in 1666 .1
Some Chittagonian Muslims however remained settled in the Kingdom of
Rakhaing (Arakan). These were the earliest Muslim settlers in the Kingdom of Rakhaing and known as the Kamans.
Muslim Immigration during Colonial period
During the colonial period Chittagonian Muslims or Bengalis came to
the land of Rakhaing freely to get employed in the developing
cultivation there, which was part of the then British economic policy.
In Sittwe (Akyab), for instance, from a few hundred inhabitants the
population had steadily increased and even within the last decade of the
19th century the growth had been continuous as the census figures
plainly show:
| Year | Population |
| 1872 | 1,923 |
| 1881 | 3,398 |
| 1891 | 3,7,93 |
| 1901 | 9,114 |
No importance is to be attached to the slight falling-off shown at
the last census, which is attributable to an unwanted paucity of coolies
from outside at the close of the busy season in April or May. The
population is mixed one, Rakhaing of whom there are 11,531 predominating
over any other race in terms of numbers. Bamars (Burmese), Chinese, and
natives of India, mainly Bengalis from the Chittagong coast, total
18,328.2
According to a Health Ministry’s report for the year 1930-31, about
40,000 Bengali coolies came into the land of Rakhaing and some of them
did not return to their homes. The British authorities, being aware of
the potential problems between the Rakhaing and the Bengali Muslims,
formed a special Investigation Commission in 1939 to study the issue of
Muslim immigration into land of Rakhaing with Commissioner (Mr. James
Ester) as Chairman and U Tin Htut and Yangon (Rangoon) University
Professor Desai as members.
The Commission showed its concern and suggested to restrict the
immigration of Bengalis to the extent necessary for cultivation. Their
suggestion however did not materialize due to the outbreak of the Second
World War.
WARTIME RAKHAING- INDIAN RIOT
When the British retreated from Burma during the war they were said
to have left some of their weapons behind with the Indians. Some Burmese
nationalists considered this as an act of British divide and rule
policy. The armed Indians, mostly hosts and thus riots began.
The most severe incidents took place in Buthidaung and Maungdaw
townships and about 20,000 Rakhaing including Deputy Commissioner U Kyaw
Khaing, an I.C.S. were killed.
There were more than 200 Rakhaing villages in Buthidaung and Maungdaw
townships before the war. During the wartime riot most of the Rakhaing
inhabitants left their homes due to Muslim threat and after the war only
about 60 villages were resettled by the Rakhaing, and the remaining
villages were occupied by the Bengalis and some of these villages had
the growth of population up to one or two hundred thousand Bengali
Muslims.
Because of this the Bengali Muslims were very much encouraged and
entered the land of Rakhaing by all means and thus posed a great problem
to the inexperienced government of the newly independent Burma.
BENGALI MUSLIMS KINDLED WITH POLITICS
When they first settled in the land of Rakhaing, the Bengalis lived
quite simply without creating any trouble. However post war Muslim
League’s movement in the Indian Continent inspired them with Muslim
unity and when the Indian Muslims demanded the establishment of a
separate state (Pakistan), these Bengali Muslims in the land of Rakhaing
also started to call as early as in 1942, for the merger of the
Buthidaung and Maungdaw townships with Pakistan.
Some members of the “Jame-a-tul-Ulema-e Islam” religious association
went to Karachi on a delegation to discuss the incorporation of
Buthidaung, Maungdaw and also Rathedaung townships into Pakistan.3
The late U San Tun Aung, an AFPFL leader of Buthidaung, referring to
his colleague MP. Mr. Abdul Khai, says in his memoir4 that upon the
reimposition of their rule the British inspired the Muslims in the area
to demand a separate Muslim state.
RAKHAING STATE AND THE MUJAHIDS
Together with the Burma independence, there emerged a large variety
of insurgents such as Red Flag Communists, White Flag Communists, White
Comrade (PVO), etc.. Educated Rakhaing were not then satisfied with the
AFPFL Government’s policy because they had no self-determination as they
had hoped whereas some other nationalities such as Shans, Kachins and
Karens had at least a state of their own.
As the cry for Rakhaing Statehood became very loud the Bengali
Muslims in the land of Rakhaing tried to take advantage out of the
situation and said that if the AFPFL Government granted statehood for
the Rakhaing they would be at Rakhaing mercy. Then they started to
demand a separate state for themselves too and threatened to wage an
armed uprising unless their demand was met.
The AFPFL Government turned down both the Rakhaing demand and the
Bengali Muslims’ demand. In response to this denial Rakhaing withdrew
their support for AFPFL and voted for the Arakan
National Union Organization (ANUO) in the elections; and the Bengali
Muslims launched the armed uprising under the name of Mujahids.
As a gesture of appeasement to the Mujahids, AFPFL Government allowed
the above ground Bengali Muslim leaders to stand for the elections from
the Buthidaung and Maungdaw constituencies. Four Bengali Muslims
namely, Mr. Abdul Gafar, Mr. Sulton Mohamad, Mr. Abul Khai and Mr. Abu
Bawshaw became MPs while their Rakhaing rivals U San Tun Aung (the
memoir writer) and Lawyer U Po Khaing (who did not speak Chittagonian
dialect though a Muslim himself) lost the elections.
Meanwhile the Mujahids continued fighting, hoisting the Pakistani
Flag and shouting “Pakistan Zindabhad” (Long-live Pakistan). In June
1951 they held a Conference in Alethangyaw in Maungdaw Township and
issued a “Charter of Demand of Rakhaing Muslims” asking for a separate
Muslim State in northern Rakhaing State and equal rights with the
Rakhaing.
Among the postwar re-established 60 Rakhaing villages the Mujahids
raided 44, setting the houses on fire, looting the monasteries and
villagers, killing the Rakhaing and raping the women. The action taken
by the Government against the Mujahids was at first very lenient. This
leniency caused great anger among the Rakhaing. The Rakhaing university
students mocked the then Prime Minister U Nu by a cartoon in the
Rakhaing Tazaung Magazine.
The AFPFL Government later sent the Burma Territorial Force (BTF)
headed by major Tha Kyaw to fight the Mujahids. Then Major Tha Kyaw and
his troops had to be transferred from the border and replaced by troops
headed by Major Htin Kyaw. The Mujahids including their leader Kasim
fled to the East Pakistan and their movement came to an end in 1959
while General Ne Win’s caretaker government was running the country.
RENEWED MOVEMENT UNDER NEW NAME “ROHINGYA”
During his campaign for the 1960 elections U Nu promised to grant
statehood to the Rakhaing and to the Mons respectively. When he again
became Prime Minister the movements for the formation of Rakhaing State
and Mon State came into life. Meanwhile Bengali Muslim leaders started
an anti-Rakhaing State movement and asked for the same status as the
Rakhaing.
When their demands were turned down on the grounds that they were not
an indigenous race, some educated Bengali Muslims began to put forward
evidence (of doubtful historical value) in an attempt
to prove that they were indigenous Rakhaing Muslims. Some stories
presented by their “historians” are ridiculous. For example they say
that their Arab ancestors became settled in the Kingdom of Rakhaing
after a shipwreck near the Rambre (Ramree) Island off the kingdom of
Rakhaing coast in the eighth century.5
The period 8th century was the period of Dannyawady Dynasty in
Rakhaing history and the old city site can still be seen near Kyauktaw
together with its stone monuments of Buddhism including some Buddha
images and inscriptions of Buddhist scriptures. This was the city from
where the great Mahamuni Buddha Image was taken in 1784 by King
Bodawpaya to Mandalay.
There may well have been contacts between the Arab world and the
Kingdom of Rakhaing but there is no evidence of Arabic culture or
Islamic faith there suggesting few people settled. The only non-Buddhist
evidence found for the 7th and 8th centuries in that area was Hindu.
Before the emergence of indigenous culture in South-East Asia, the area
was mainly under the influence of Indian civilization. That is why some
scholars call this area “Father India” and the City States there
“Indianized States”. However, unfortunately, some Muslims with strong
religious and racial prejudice attempt to misinterpret them as Islamic
States instead of Hindu ones.
Another claim of these “historians” is that Rakhaing Kings of Mrauk-U
Dynasty in the 15th century were Muslims. This statement is based on
the fact that few Rakhaing Kings of early Mrauk-U Dynasty had Muslim
titles side by side with their own Rakhaing ones. Of course they did so,
but the only possible reason for this was to show their lordship over
their Muslim subjects residing, in Chittagong area, which was under
Rakhaing rule until 1666 A.D.
If these kings were Muslims they would surely not have built Buddhist
pagodas. However there are so many Buddhist pagodas, in and around
Mrauk-U, which were built by these kings. The construction of the Buddha
Image is diametrically opposite from the Islam faith. Therefore it is
totally impossible to suggest that the kings of Rakhaing Kingdom in the
15th century were Muslims.
As a matter of fact there has never been a Rohingya race in Myanmar.
There is no such name as Rohingya in the Census of India, 1921 Myanmar
compiled by S.G. Grantham, I.C.S., Superintendent of Census Operations,
Myanmar or in the Myanmar Gazetteer, Sittwe District compiled by R.B.
Smart. Since these were written for administrative purposes, needless to
say they were objective.
Even in 1951 when the Bengali Muslims in the land of Rakhaing held
the “Alethankyaw Conference”, they did not claim that they were
Rohingyas. Instead they called themselves “Rakhaing Muslims”.
When General Ne WIn’s Revolutionary Government came to power in 1962,
the Mujahid movement was stopped together with the statehood issues of
the Rakhaing and the Mons. In 1973 when the BSPP Government sought
public opinion for drafting a constitution the Bengali Muslims submitted
a proposal for the formation of a separate Muslim division with the
name of “Mayu Division”6 mentioning the “shipwreck theory” of their
descent.7
Although the BSPP Government did not meet the Bengali Muslim’s
demands or did not even allow them to stand for the elections for local
administrative bodies, Bengali influx could not be stopped. Moreover the
Bengali Muslims gathered a large number of arms and ammunition from the
Bangladesh liberation war and an organization was formed shouting the
slogan “Rohingya National Liberation” on 15-7-1972.8
OPERATION NAGARMIN
In 1978 the Myanmar Government launched Operation Nagarmin on a
nation-wide scale as part of a demographic survey. For fear of facing
the immigration check, a large number of Muslims fled to Bengladesh.
Although the number of those who fled the country was set as 156,630,
Myanmar accepted back 186,965 Bengali Muslims under Decca Agreement.
Then, in 1982, the Myanmar Citizenship Act was promulgated.9
ROHINGYA MOVEMENT AFTER 1988
The democracy uprising in 1988 provided a great opportunity for the
Rohingya activists. They jumped on the bandwagon and participated in the
demonstrations more for the interest of their own cause rather than
nation-wide democratic cause, hoisting the Rohingya banner freely
without any one to oppose them.
When the SLORC allowed the registration of the political parties they
also applied to get their parties registered. The Election Commission
however turned them down. Some therefore toned down their own cause and
changed the name of the party by dropping the word “Rohingya”. One of
their parties, National Democratic Party for Human Rights (NDPHR) won 4
seats in the 1990 elections, but the party has now been deregistered
together with two hundred-odd parties.
Now they are emphasizing more on the armed struggle. According to Mya
Win the following are the Rohingya insurgent organizations currently
activating.10
- RSO (Rohingya Solidarity Organization);
- ARIF (Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front);
- RPF (Rohingya Patriotic Front);
- RLO (Rohingya Laberation Organization);
- IMA (Itihadul Mozahadin of Arakan).
CONCLUSION
The causes of this problem can be attributed firstly to the disregard
of the area by the governments since the colonial period down to the
early days of the SLORC, with the exception of the Operation Nagarmin
launched by the BSPP Government in 1978. Even then the operation tailed
off and was replaced by the Hintha Campaign.
The British ruled Myanmar as part of their Indian Empire until 1947
when they relied for the boost of agricultural produce mainly upon the
Chittagonian Muslims. This might be partly because of the scarcity of
labour in Myanmar and partly because the Indians were more humble,
obedient and hard working than the people of Myanmar.
The consecutive government after independence was not in a position
to pay equal attention to the average development of the whole country
causing the grievances of the minorities.
Some government leaders such as AFPFL Premier U Nu and U Ba Swe, in
their campaign speeches, publicly stated the recently intruded Bengali
Muslims among the national races under the name of Rohingya.
Political leaders were no scholars, but they should be aware of the
real feeling and the realities of the nationalities. They should avoid
such shortsighted and irresponsible commitments became these things are
very grave concerns of the nation. The above leaders, probably without
understanding the realities, made those statements simply to win their
votes. Some AFPFL leaders of that area even granted instant citizenship
to the new influx of Bengalis so as to make them able to cast the vote
for their party.
The departmental personnel, especially some of those from the
Immigration Department serving at the border area, also contributed to
the emergence of the Rohingya problem by accepting bribes and issuing
National Registration Cards to the illegally immigrated Bengali Muslims.
The final cause of the problem directly concerns the Rakhaing people.
The Bengali Muslims have come into land of Rakhaing with the intention
of starting a new life and are of great vigilance and zeal whereas their
Rakhaing hosts are sluggish, negligent and lethargic about their future
problems.
(A part of the cited references some facts in this article are based on the unpublished memoir of Bonbauk Tha Kyaw.)
INDEX
- Hall, D.G.E., A History of South-East Asia, p.398
- Twentieth Century Impression of Burma, p.396; London, Lloyd Greater Britain Publishing House Co., Ltd., 1908
- Khin Gyi Pyaw, Who are the Mujahids in Arakan, Rakhine Tazaung Megazine. 1959-60, p.99.
- unpublished type script.
- Maung Than Lwin; “Rakhaing Kalar or Roe Wan Nya People”, Myawaddy Magazine 1962. And also in the Proposal of the Rohingya People to the Constitution Commission. (Hereafter this will be referred to as Proposal.)
- Mayu is the name of river which flows across Northern Rakhaing State.
- Proposal.
- Mya Win, “If we appraise the attempts made to sow enmity against Myanmar Naing Ngan”, WPD, 25-1-1992.
- Ibid
- Ibid
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